Hurricanes intensify as they travel over warm ocean water.
Hurricanes intensify as they travel over warm ocean water, threatening lives with powerful winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges, and coastal and inland flooding.
Around 70% of hurricanes that reached Category 5 crossed the Amazon/Orinoco river plume.
Around 70% of hurricanes that finally reached Category 5 crossed the Amazon/Orinoco river plume, according to a 2007 study.
River plumes can extend thousands of miles offshore.
These plumes can extend thousands of miles offshore. Their waters are usually fresher, warmer, and carry more dissolved organic matter than the surrounding ocean.
Monitoring the Amazon/Orinoco River is an important application of salinity data.
The Amazon/Orinoco River plume extent changes not only over weeks and months ... but also from year-to-year. Monitoring the plume is an important application of salinity data.
"Even in the middle of a hurricane, the bottom of the sea is calm." - Wayne Muller
Watching hurricanes slowly creeping toward land can be alarming. However, it is also important to track these storms' path over the ocean, which greatly influences their strength.
Satellite data such as sea surface temperature and height help scientists understand the ocean heat content available for storm intensification. Current forecasting tools do not include the effects of salinity, but new research shows that low sea surface salinity caused by the outflow of major rivers can have a considerable impact on how storms intensify. Why?
Outflow from rivers can form and maintain thin layers at the sea surface. Underneath, there can be a "barrier layer" where salinity changes dramatically, isolating the upper ocean from water below. This type of stratified water column can intensify passing hurricanes. How?
The answer is heat. Thinner surface layers warm up more quickly than surrounding waters. Not only that, the underlying barrier layer makes "stirring up" the water column by hurricanes - which brings up cold water in most places – more difficult. So, monitoring how certain river plumes change over time is key to understanding interactions between the ocean and hurricanes.
Use the tool below – based on a 5-year study by Fournier et al. (2017) – to investigate the characteristics of the Amazon/Orinoco plume during 2010 and 2014. Located in the eastern Caribbean Sea, the study area has been shown to lie directly in the path of many Atlantic hurricanes. Use the buttons to toggle between years or among data types.
Defined by low salinity, the Amazon/Orinoco plume covers most of the study area.
Sea Surface Temperature
Defined by low salinity, the plume's water is warmer than average. Together, these properties help the plume "stay afloat".
Mixed Layer Depth
The depth of surface mixing – shown approximately in this diagram – differs between the plume and the surrounding ocean.
Dissolved Organic Matter
Dissolved organic matter from the Orinoco River is a major contributor in 2010. More dissolved particles, especially with darker color, help trap more heat.
Winds
The large extent of the 2010 plume was helped by low winds in the region. These winds allowed the plume to move well offshore.
Defined by low salinity, the Amazon/Orinoco plume covers only 60% of the study area.
Sea Surface Temperature
Defined by low salinity, the plume’s water is warmer than average. Together, these properties help the plume "stay afloat".
Mixed Layer Depth
The depth of surface mixing – shown approximately in this diagram – differs between the plume and the surrounding ocean.
Dissolved Organic Matter
During 2014, organic matter is low and concentrated in the southern portion of the study area.
Winds
The 2014 extent is relatively small because of winds blowing toward South America. In addition, ocean eddies transported plume waters along the coast (rather than offshore).
Chacko, N. and Jayaram, C. (2021). Response of the Bay of Bengal to super cyclone Amphan examined using synergistic satellite and in-situ observations, Oceanologia, doi: 10.1016/j.oceano.2021.09.006.
Knaff, J., Sampson, C., Kucas, M., Slocum, C., Brennan, M., Meissner, T., Ricciardulli, L., Mouche, A., Reul, N., Morris, M., Chirokova, G., and Caroff, P. (2021). Estimating Tropical Cyclone Surface Winds: Current Status, Emerging Technologies, Historical Evolution, and a Look to the Future, Trop. Cyclone Res. Rev., 10(3), 125-150, doi: 10.1016/j.tcrr.2021.09.002.
Iyer, S. and Drushka, K. (2021). Turbulence Within Rain-Formed Fresh Lenses During the SPURS-2 Experiment, J. Phys. Oceanogr., doi: 10.1175/JPO-D-20-0303.1.
Li, J., Zheng, Q., Li, M., Li, Q., and Xie, L. (2021). Spatiotemporal Distributions of Ocean Color Elements in Response to Tropical Cyclone: A Case Study of Typhoon Mangkhut (2018) Past over the Northern South China Sea, Remote Sens. 2021, 13(4), 687, doi: 10.3390/rs13040687.
Domingues, R., Le Hénaff, M., Halliwell, G., Zhang, J., Bringas, F., Chardon, P., Kim, H.-S., Morell, J., and Goni, G. (2021). Ocean Conditions and the Intensification of Three Major Atlantic Hurricanes in 2017, Mon. Weather Rev., doi: 10.1175/MWR-D-20-0100.1.
Sun, J., Vecchi, G., and Soden, B. (2021). Sea Surface Salinity Response to Tropical Cyclones Based on Satellite Observations, Remote Sens., 13(3), 420, doi: doi.org/10.3390/rs13030420.
Trott, C. and Subrahmanyam, B. (2020). Satellite Data Analysis of the Upper Ocean Response to Hurricane Dorian (2019) in the North Atlantic Ocean, IEEE Geosci. Remote. Sens. Lett., doi: 10.1109/LGRS.2020.3032062.
Xu, H., Yu, R., Liu, Y., Tang, D., Wang, S., and Fu, D. (2020). Effects of Tropical Cyclones on Sea Surface Salinity in the Bay of Bengal Based on SMAP and Argo Data, Water, 12(11), 2975, doi: 10.3390/w12112975.
Dzwonkowski, B., Coogan, J., Fournier, S., Lockridge, G., Park, K., and Lee, T. (2020). Compounding Impact of Severe Weather Events Fuels Marine Heatwave in the Coastal Ocean, Nat. Commun., 11, 623, doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-18339-2.
Elizabeth, A., Effy, J., and Francis, P.
(2020). On the Upper Ocean Response of Bay of Bengal to Very Severe Cyclones Phailin and Hudhud, J. Oper. Oceanogr., 15 pp., doi: 10.1080/1755876X.2020.1813412.
Guo, J., Zhang, T., Xu, C., and Xie, Q. (2019). Upper Ocean Response to Typhoon Kujira (2015) in the South China Sea by Multiple Means of Observation, J. Ocean. Limnol., 1-20, doi: 10.1007/s00343-019-9059-z.
Zhang, H., Liu, X., Wu, R., Liu, F., Yu, L., Shang, X., Qi, Y., Wang, Y., Song, X., Xie, X., Yang, C., Tian, D., and Zhang, W. (2019). Ocean Response to Successive Typhoons Sarika and Haima (2016) Based on Data Acquired via Multiple Satellites and Moored Array, Remote Sens., 11 (20), 2360, doi: 10.3390/rs11202360.
Fore, A.G., Yueh, S.H., Stiles, B.W., Tang, W., and Hayashi, A.K. (2019). On Extreme Winds at L-Band with the SMAP Synthetic Aperture Radar, Remote Sens. Lett., 11, 1093, doi: 10.3390/rs11091093.
George, J.V., Vinayachandran, P.N., Vijith, V., Thushara, V., Nayak, A.A., Pargaonkar, S.M., Amol, P., Vijaykumar, K., and Matthews, A.J. (2019). Mechanisms of Barrier Layer Formation and Erosion from In Situ Observations in the Bay of Bengal, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49 (5), doi: 10.1175/JPO-D-18-0204.1.
Qiu, Y., Han, W., Lin, X., West, B.J., Li, Y., Xing, W., Zhang, X., Arulananthan, K., and Guo, X. (2019). Upper-Ocean Response to the Super Tropical Cyclone Phailin (2013) over the Freshwater Region of the Bay of Bengal, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49 (5), 1201-1228, doi: 10.1175/JPO-D-18-0228.1.
Chaudhuri, D., Sengupta, D., D’Asaro, E., Venkatesan, R., and Ravichandran, M. (2019). Response of the Salinity-Stratified Bay of Bengal to Cyclone Phailin, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49 (5), 1121-1140, doi: 10.1175/jpo-d-18-0051.1.
Lekha, J.S., Buckley, J.M., Tandon, A., and Sengupta, D. (2018). Subseasonal Dispersal of Freshwater in the Northern Bay of Bengal in the 2013 Summer Monsoon Season, J. Geophy. Res-Oceans, 123 (9), 6330-6348, doi: 10.1029/2018jc014181.
Androulidakis, Y., Kourafalou, V., Halliwell, G., Le Hènaff, M., Kang, H., Mehari, M., Atlas, R. (2016). Hurricane Interaction with the Upper Ocean in the Amazon-Orinoco Plume Region, Ocean Dynamics, 66 (12), 1559-1588, doi:10.1007/s10236-016-0997-0.
Newinger, C. and Toumi, R. (2015). Potential Impact of the Colored Amazon and Orinoco Plume on Tropical Cyclone Intensity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120 (2), 1296-1317, doi: 10.1002/2014JC010533.
Reul, N., Quilfen, Y., Chapron, B., Fournier, S., Kudryavtsev, V., and Sabia, R. (2014). Multisensor Observations of the Amazon-Orinoco River Plume Interactions with Hurricanes, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119 (12), 8271-8295, doi: 10.1002/2014JC010107.
Felton, C.S., Subrahmanyam, B., Murty, V.S.N., and Shriver, J.F. (2014). Estimation of the Barrier Layer Thickness in the Indian Ocean Using Aquarius Salinity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119 (7), 4200-4213, doi: 10.1002/2013JC009759.
Vizy, E.K. and Cook, K.H. (2010). Influence of the Amazon/Orinoco Plume on the Summertime Atlantic Climate, J. Geophys. Res., 115 (D21112), doi: 10.1029/2010JD014049.
Ffield, A. (2007). Amazon and Orinoco River Plumes and NBC Rings: Bystanders or Participants in Hurricane Events?, J. Climate, 20, 316-333, doi: 10.1175/JCLI3985.1.
Use the slider to compare changes in salinity and temperature of the Amazon River plume, outlined in black. For both images, crosses (+) show daily locations of Hurricane Katia in late August and early September 2011.
The size of each cross indicates strength of sustained winds on that day. Colors indicate differences in conditions after the hurricane passed over the plume.
For example, red areas of salinity got saltier and blue areas of temperature cooled down, indicating erosion of the surface barrier layer by the storm. Later hurricanes (Maria and Ophelia) did not intensify as the eroded barrier layer (due to Katia passage) allowed an increase in upper ocean cooling (Androulidakis, et al., 2016).
Featured Publications
This study investigates sea surface salinity and sea surface temperature variations in the tropical Atlantic east of the Lesser Antilles, a region where freshwater advection from the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers - the Amazon-Orinoco Plume - may potentially impact air-sea interaction. Persistent sea surface temperature gradients are often found near the plume edge, which may have implications for ocean-atmosphere coupling associated with atmospheric convection.
Reference
Fournier, S., Vandemark, D., Gautier, L., Lee, T., Jonsson, B., and Gierach, M.M. (2017).
Read the full paper.
The evolution of three successive hurricanes (Katia, Maria, and Ophelia) is investigated over the river plume area formed by the Amazon and Orinoco river outflows during September of 2011. The study focuses on hurricane impacts on the ocean structure and the ocean feedback influencing hurricane intensification.
Reference
Androulidakis, Y., Kourafalou, V., Halliwell, G., Le Hénaff, M., Kang, H., Mehari, M., Atlas, R. (2016).
Read the full paper.
At its seasonal peak the Amazon/Orinoco plume covers a region of 106 km2 in the western tropical Atlantic with more than 1m of extra freshwater, creating a near‐surface barrier layer that inhibits mixing and warms the sea surface temperature to >29°C. Here new sea surface salinity observations from the Aquarius/SAC-D and SMOS satellites help elucidate the ocean response to hurricane Katia, which crossed the plume in early fall, 2011.
Reference
Grodsky, S., Reul, N., Lagerloef, G., Reverdin, G., Carton, J., Chapron, B., Quilfen, Y., Kudryavtsev, V., and Kao, H. (2012).
Read the full paper.
Resources
Get the data:
View maps of sea surface salinity from SMAP and Aquarius
Chacko, N. and Jayaram, C. (2021). Response of the Bay of Bengal to super cyclone Amphan examined using synergistic satellite and in-situ observations, Oceanologia, doi: 10.1016/j.oceano.2021.09.006.
Knaff, J., Sampson, C., Kucas, M., Slocum, C., Brennan, M., Meissner, T., Ricciardulli, L., Mouche, A., Reul, N., Morris, M., Chirokova, G., and Caroff, P. (2021). Estimating Tropical Cyclone Surface Winds: Current Status, Emerging Technologies, Historical Evolution, and a Look to the Future, Trop. Cyclone Res. Rev., 10(3), 125-150, doi: 10.1016/j.tcrr.2021.09.002.
Iyer, S. and Drushka, K. (2021). Turbulence Within Rain-Formed Fresh Lenses During the SPURS-2 Experiment, J. Phys. Oceanogr., doi: 10.1175/JPO-D-20-0303.1.
Li, J., Zheng, Q., Li, M., Li, Q., and Xie, L. (2021). Spatiotemporal Distributions of Ocean Color Elements in Response to Tropical Cyclone: A Case Study of Typhoon Mangkhut (2018) Past over the Northern South China Sea, Remote Sens. 2021, 13(4), 687, doi: 10.3390/rs13040687.
Domingues, R., Le Hénaff, M., Halliwell, G., Zhang, J., Bringas, F., Chardon, P., Kim, H.-S., Morell, J., and Goni, G. (2021). Ocean Conditions and the Intensification of Three Major Atlantic Hurricanes in 2017, Mon. Weather Rev., doi: 10.1175/MWR-D-20-0100.1.
Sun, J., Vecchi, G., and Soden, B. (2021). Sea Surface Salinity Response to Tropical Cyclones Based on Satellite Observations, Remote Sens., 13(3), 420, doi: doi.org/10.3390/rs13030420.
Trott, C. and Subrahmanyam, B. (2020). Satellite Data Analysis of the Upper Ocean Response to Hurricane Dorian (2019) in the North Atlantic Ocean, IEEE Geosci. Remote. Sens. Lett., doi: 10.1109/LGRS.2020.3032062.
Xu, H., Yu, R., Liu, Y., Tang, D., Wang, S., and Fu, D. (2020). Effects of Tropical Cyclones on Sea Surface Salinity in the Bay of Bengal Based on SMAP and Argo Data, Water, 12(11), 2975, doi: 10.3390/w12112975.
Dzwonkowski, B., Coogan, J., Fournier, S., Lockridge, G., Park, K., and Lee, T. (2020). Compounding Impact of Severe Weather Events Fuels Marine Heatwave in the Coastal Ocean, Nat. Commun., 11, 623, doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-18339-2.
Elizabeth, A., Effy, J., and Francis, P.
(2020). On the Upper Ocean Response of Bay of Bengal to Very Severe Cyclones Phailin and Hudhud, J. Oper. Oceanogr., 15 pp., doi: 10.1080/1755876X.2020.1813412.
Guo, J., Zhang, T., Xu, C., and Xie, Q. (2019). Upper Ocean Response to Typhoon Kujira (2015) in the South China Sea by Multiple Means of Observation, J. Ocean. Limnol., 1-20, doi: 10.1007/s00343-019-9059-z.
Zhang, H., Liu, X., Wu, R., Liu, F., Yu, L., Shang, X., Qi, Y., Wang, Y., Song, X., Xie, X., Yang, C., Tian, D., and Zhang, W. (2019). Ocean Response to Successive Typhoons Sarika and Haima (2016) Based on Data Acquired via Multiple Satellites and Moored Array, Remote Sens., 11 (20), 2360, doi: 10.3390/rs11202360.
Fore, A.G., Yueh, S.H., Stiles, B.W., Tang, W., and Hayashi, A.K. (2019). On Extreme Winds at L-Band with the SMAP Synthetic Aperture Radar, Remote Sens. Lett., 11, 1093, doi: 10.3390/rs11091093.
George, J.V., Vinayachandran, P.N., Vijith, V., Thushara, V., Nayak, A.A., Pargaonkar, S.M., Amol, P., Vijaykumar, K., and Matthews, A.J. (2019). Mechanisms of Barrier Layer Formation and Erosion from In Situ Observations in the Bay of Bengal, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49 (5), doi: 10.1175/JPO-D-18-0204.1.
Qiu, Y., Han, W., Lin, X., West, B.J., Li, Y., Xing, W., Zhang, X., Arulananthan, K., and Guo, X. (2019). Upper-Ocean Response to the Super Tropical Cyclone Phailin (2013) over the Freshwater Region of the Bay of Bengal, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49 (5), 1201-1228, doi: 10.1175/JPO-D-18-0228.1.
Chaudhuri, D., Sengupta, D., D’Asaro, E., Venkatesan, R., and Ravichandran, M. (2019). Response of the Salinity-Stratified Bay of Bengal to Cyclone Phailin, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49 (5), 1121-1140, doi: 10.1175/jpo-d-18-0051.1.
Lekha, J.S., Buckley, J.M., Tandon, A., and Sengupta, D. (2018). Subseasonal Dispersal of Freshwater in the Northern Bay of Bengal in the 2013 Summer Monsoon Season, J. Geophy. Res-Oceans, 123 (9), 6330-6348, doi: 10.1029/2018jc014181.
Androulidakis, Y., Kourafalou, V., Halliwell, G., Le Hènaff, M., Kang, H., Mehari, M., Atlas, R. (2016). Hurricane Interaction with the Upper Ocean in the Amazon-Orinoco Plume Region, Ocean Dynamics, 66 (12), 1559-1588, doi:10.1007/s10236-016-0997-0.
Newinger, C. and Toumi, R. (2015). Potential Impact of the Colored Amazon and Orinoco Plume on Tropical Cyclone Intensity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120 (2), 1296-1317, doi: 10.1002/2014JC010533.
Reul, N., Quilfen, Y., Chapron, B., Fournier, S., Kudryavtsev, V., and Sabia, R. (2014). Multisensor Observations of the Amazon-Orinoco River Plume Interactions with Hurricanes, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119 (12), 8271-8295, doi: 10.1002/2014JC010107.
Felton, C.S., Subrahmanyam, B., Murty, V.S.N., and Shriver, J.F. (2014). Estimation of the Barrier Layer Thickness in the Indian Ocean Using Aquarius Salinity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119 (7), 4200-4213, doi: 10.1002/2013JC009759.
Vizy, E.K. and Cook, K.H. (2010). Influence of the Amazon/Orinoco Plume on the Summertime Atlantic Climate, J. Geophys. Res., 115 (D21112), doi: 10.1029/2010JD014049.
Ffield, A. (2007). Amazon and Orinoco River Plumes and NBC Rings: Bystanders or Participants in Hurricane Events?, J. Climate, 20, 316-333, doi: 10.1175/JCLI3985.1.
